COPPER ORE MINING IN THE BRONZE AGE IN MUGOJARY*

The results of geoarchaeological studies are presented at 19 copper ore objects of the Mugodzhar Mining and Metallurgical Center, which developed four types of copper ores that differ in geological position, structure of ore bodies, reserves of the useful component, mineral and chemical composition. The geographical coordinates and main parameters of mine workings (morphology, size of quarries and ore bodies) are indicated, and the scale of development is determined. A detailed description of eight of the most typical Bronze Age mines is given. The age of individual workings is determined. The total amount of ore extracted from the studied ore fields is estimated at 55 thousand tons, of which about 1.75 thousand tons of copper could have been obtained.

Keywords: Mugodzhar Mining and Metallurgical Center, Bronze Age mines, composition of copper ores, calculation of the amount of extracted material.

Introduction

Mugodzhary - the southern end of the Ural geological structure-is important for archaeology as a borderline Euro-Asian region, where the history of human habitation and activity can be traced over a huge time interval starting from Acheulean (Derevyanko et al., 2001). Among the archaeological sites of the Bronze Age, copper mines are of particular interest as a source of metal for the population of not only this territory. The history of mining in the Bronze Age of the Urals is reflected in a number of publications. The authors distinguish four mining and metallurgical centers in this region: the Priuralsky (Kargalinsky) one with famous deposits of copper sandstones, the Middle Urals with malachite deposits, the Trans-Ural and Mugodzhar deposits (Chernykh, 1970, 2007; Grigoriev, 2000; Zaikov et al., 2005; Tkachev, 2011a). The article is devoted to the results of the latter's research covering Mugodzhary and part of the Southern Trans-Urals.

* The work was carried out within the framework of the interdisciplinary project of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences No. 12-M-456-2024 and the task of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation "Use of Natural Resources: past experience for the Future", with the financial support of the Russian Foundation for Natural Science (project N 12 - 01 - 00293) and the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan (project No. 1392/ GF2 "Ore regions and archeometallurgy of Mugojar: an interdisciplinary study of the development of copper ore resources in the region during the Paleometallic era").

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The main purpose of the study was to determine the structure of the copper ore objects of the Mugodzhar GMC, the methods and scale of their development in ancient times. To do this, it was necessary to establish the morphology and parameters of ore bodies (areas in rocks with visible copper mineralization); to characterize the mineral and geochemical composition of the extracted ores and identify their types; to calculate the amount of ore extracted and metal smelted from it; to diagnose the stone material of mining tools found in ancient workings.

Field work was carried out by a comprehensive Russian-Kazakh archaeological expedition on 17 mines discovered earlier (Rodionov, 1996; Zaikov et al., 2005; Tkachev, 2011a). They included drawing up large-scale geological maps and sections of ancient workings, searching for tools of ancient mining, and sampling copper ores and host rocks for laboratory research. The latter were performed at the Institute of Mineralogy of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, with analysts: V. A. Kotlyarov (X-ray spectral analysis), P. V. Khvorov (X-ray fluorescence analysis), T. M. Ryabukhina (X-ray phase analysis), and M. N. Malyaryanok (atomic absorption analysis).

In the structure of the Mugodzhar MMC, archaeological microdistricts are distinguished, which combine mines, special sites for pre-processing of ores (industrial sites), settlements of miners and metallurgists, as well as their burial grounds. The most studied are the Elenovsky (Kuzmina, 1962, 1963) and Ishkininsky (Zaikov et al., 2009; Zaikov, Yuminov, and Tkachev, 2012) microdistricts.

Characteristics of copper ore objects

Ancient copper mines are located in the mountain steppe zone of the Southern Urals and Mugodzhar. The study area is 150 - 250 km wide and approx. long. 500 km includes the south-eastern regions of Bashkortostan, the east of the Orenburg region (Russia), the north-eastern and central part of the Aktobe region (Kazakhstan) (see figure). Analysis of ancient stone tools, as well as the results of palynological studies and radiocarbon dating of buried soils preserved under the dumps of individual quarries, made it possible to attribute these workings to the Bronze Age (Tkachev, 2011a). All copper mining at this time was based on the development of oxidized sulfide ores consisting of malachite, azurite, bornite, chalcosine, limonite (brown ironstone) and an admixture of other non-metallic minerals: quartz, carbonates, barite, clays, etc. The copper content in ores is 5-10%, on average-slightly more than 6.5 %.

Based on the results of the research, four types of copper ores are identified, which differ in the geological position and nature of the host rocks, the shape of ore bodies, the volume of ores extracted, their mineral and chemical composition; and, accordingly, mines of different localization: 1) in hyperbasites and products of their alteration-serpentinites and talc carbonate rocks; 2) in pyroxenites; 3) in basalts with layers of jasper (siliceous-basalt complexes); 4) in contact zones of granitoids with volcanogenic rocks.

The eight most significant sites are described below. The rest are shown in Table 1.

Ancient mines in hyperbasites

Hyperbasites, or ultramafic rocks, consist of olivine and pyroxenes in various quantitative ratios, contain chromite as an accessory admixture characteristic of these rocks, and the geochemical feature is an increased (tenths of a percent) content of nickel and

Location (A) and layout of ancient mines in the Mugodzharsky GMC (B). 1-approximate boundaries of the area; 2 - zone of the Main Ural fault; 3-5-ore-bearing complexes: 3 - hyperbasic and pyro-xenite, 4-basalt, 5-granitoid; 6 - 9-localization of mines: 6 - in hyperbasites and modified hyperbasites, 7-in pyroxenites, 8-in basalts with jasper interlayers, 9 - in contact zones of granitoids; 10-modern settlements.

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Table 1. Brief description of the ancient mines of the Mugodzhar GMC

Mine (coordinates)

Location

Description of workings*, archaeological finds

Cu content in ores, %**

1

2

3

4

In hyperbasites and modified hyperbasites

Dergamyshsky

4 km north of the village. Fedorovka (Khaibullinsky district, Bashkortostan)

The quarry is oval in shape, 60x65 m, 10 - 12 m deep, surrounded by a ring of dumps

6,50

Ivanovo Region

4 km north-west of the village. Бай-гускарово (Хайбуллинский р-н, Башкортостан)

Spindle-shaped quarry, 10...30x55 m, 5 m deep

6,50

Ishkininsky (51°27 '24.9"N, 58°18 '0.01" E)

1 km east of the village. Ishkinino (Gaisky district, Orenburg region)

Eight quarries of various shapes and sizes; an industrial site, three ore warehouses of different types; a mining settlement, ceramics; stone tools of mining (3 copies), copper slags

5,26 2,57 - 7,95

Roadside (51°00 '53.1"N, 58°04 '21.0" E)

B12. 3 km azimuth 311 ° from the village. Bugumbai (Kargalinsky district, Aktobe region)

Oval-shaped quarry, 7x9 m, 0.5 m deep

7,28 1,01 - 11,75

Chanchar (50°42 '18.6"N, 57°44 '55.4" E)

2.1 km in azimuth 180° from Shanarka winter garden (Kargalinsky district, Aktobe region)

Crescent-shaped quarry, 5...7x20 ... 25 m, up to 1 m deep, complicated by modern exploration workings; hammer-pick

6,30 2,08 - 13,66

Chudskoy (50°49 '19.5" N, 57°53 '02.3" E)

4.5 km in azimuth 115° from the village. Er-zerum (Kargalin district, Aktobe region)

Two quarries: 2x5 m, 0.1 m deep; 9x10 m, 0.5 m deep

6,07 1,64 - 9,41

In pyroxenites

Ushkatti a certain (50°42 '53.9"N, 59°50 '08.8" E)

8 km in azimuth 75° from d. Karaganda (Dombarovsky district, Orenburg region)

Four quarries: large - trough-shaped, 15x120 m, up to 1 m deep; small-5 - 10 m in diameter, up to 0.5 m deep, rounded or dumbbell-shaped, connected by a bridge; stone hammer

5,74 1,24 - 8,38

8 basalts with sh

oolayers of jasper

Aktogay (48°30 '39.8"N, 58°52 '48.5" E)

2 km east of the village. Aktogay on the left bank of the Shuuludak river

Oval-shaped quarry, 14x28 m, 2.5 m deep, cut into the top of the mountain; burial ground; temporary and permanent settlements of miners; stone tools of mining (13 copies)

6,61 3,11 - 7,79

Aralcha-Spring (50°36 '54.7"N, 59°28 '50.1" E)

1.45 km east of Koshensai village (Khromtau district, Aktobe region).

Quarry of quadrangular shape, 8x15 m, 1.5 m deep, complicated by small incisions; industrial site

7,30 1,21 - 9,83

Ginischke (48°58 '56.0" N, 58°50 '48.7" E)

11 km south-west of the village. Altyndy (Mugalzhar district, Aktobe region)

Oval-shaped quarry, 15x20 m, 3 m deep, cut into the slope; two industrial sites; stone tools of mining (3 copies)

6,98 3,44 - 9,52

Kurkuduk Severny (48°52 '34.5"N, 58°48 '00.3" E)

10 km south-east of the village. Altyndy (Mugalzhar district, Aktobe region)

Oval-shaped quarry, 15x18 m, 1.5 m deep

7,70 1,09 - 7,66

Kurkuduk Central (48°52 '04.0"N, 58°47 '22.8" E)

The same thing

Horseshoe-shaped quarry, 30x50 m, 1.5 m deep; industrial site; stone tools of mining (6 copies)

8,34 3,03 - 9,81

South Kurkuduk (48°51 ' 33.1 "N, 58°47 '04.3" E)

"

Two oval-shaped quarries: 6x9 m, 0.5 m deep; 15...25x50 ... 55 m, 0.75 m deep; industrial site; stone tools of mining (2 copies)

7,34 2,35 - 9,86

Pshensai (48°36 '12.4"N, 58°47 '0.07" E)

7 km north-northeast of Dongelek winter garden (Shalkar district, Aktobe region).

Two quarries: 3x5 m, 0.2 m deep; 5x15 m, 0.3 m deep; stone tools of mining (3 copies)

6,43 1,95 - 10,26

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End of Table 1

1

2

3

4

Chiliktinsky (50°28 '56.7"N, 58°09 '16.3" E)

10 km south-west of the village. Batamshinsky (Kargalinsky district of Aktobe region)

Two quarries: South - 8 m in diameter, 0.3 m deep; North - L-shaped, 6x20 m, 0.5 m deep; burial ground; stone hammer

5,92 1,51 - 11,24

South Zhamantau (48°04 '33.4"N, 58°22 '11.3" E)

Top of South Zhamantau mountain (Shalkar district, Aktobe region)

Three quarries: Zapadny - sickle-shaped, 15...17x35 m, 1.5 - 2.5 m deep; Eastern-dumbbell-shaped, 4...9x x25 m, approx. 1.5 m deep; South-oval shape, 6x15 m, 0.3 m deep; menhir; seasonal settlement of miners; stone tools (8 copies)

8,23 7,54 - 8,82

In contact zones of granitoids

Elenovsky

3 km east of the village. Elenovsky (Dombarovsky district, Orenburg region)

Oval-shaped quarry, 25...30x40 ... 45 m, 2 - 3 m deep (destroyed by the development of the XX century), industrial sites; places of metallurgical melting; settlement; burial grounds

6,53 2,8 - 14,13

Kengiyak (49°24 '32.4" N, 59°56 '44.2" E; 49°24 '28.5"N, 59°56 '45.8" E)

Aitekebiy district of Aktobe region.

Two open pits: The Northern one is round in shape, 15-18 m in diameter, 2.5 m deep; the southern one is trough - shaped: four overlapping workings of 4...8x4 in size...15 m, total length up to 40 m, depth up to 0.5 m; mining implements (4 copies)

5,84 2,65 - 9,89

Chuuldak (48°30 '41.7" N, 58°48 '56.6" E)

13.5 km in azimuth 100° from the village. Alabas (Shalkar district, Aktobe region)

Nine linear quarries from 7 to 70 m, 0.2 - 1.0 m deep along the stretch of quartz veins; two industrial sites; 13 temporary settlements and one permanent one; burial grounds; stone tools of mining (18 copies).

6,60 2,34 - 9,75

* Current dimensions of workings are shown. "Above the line - average content, below the line-minimum and maximum values.

of cobalt. Hyperbasites are usually serpentinized or transformed into talc carbonate rocks. Ore bodies form lenticular deposits ranging in size from a few to the first tens of meters. The geochemical feature of the ores is an increased content of chromium (0.1-2.0 %) and nickel (0.2 - 0.6%).

The Ishkininsky mine is associated with the cobalt-copper-pyrite deposit of the same name (Tkachev, 20116). It includes eight quarries (Zaikov et al., 2009; Zaikov, Yuminov, and Tkachev, 2012) of two types: 1) elongated and oval, consisting of linear workings with a length of 40-80 m with a predominant depth of 6-7 m, which developed steeply falling ore bodies; 2) rounded, with a diameter of 15-100 m and a depth of 3-10 m, passed through gently lying ore bodies or a group of ore bodies. Ore dressing, judging by the presence of crushed stone of malachite-containing rocks, occurred on a separate flat area composed of ore-free serpentinites.

Mining operations carried out by the Gaisky Mining and Processing Plant uncovered the dumps of two quarries. Two lenses consisting of fragments of oxidized copper ore of azurite-malachite composition were found in the dumps. Such accumulations are ore warehouses (a special place intended for storing the most valuable raw materials). The apparent thickness of the lenses is 0.6 m, the length is 4-5 m. Ore deposits are covered with a layer of buried soil.

As a result of the analysis of buried soils from quarry dumps carried out at the Institute of Chemical Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences (as determined by G. I. Zaitseva and P. F. Kuznetsov), calibrated radiocarbon dates (68.2% probability) were obtained, which allowed us to identify a confidence interval within 3100-2400 years BC (58.8 %), which corresponds to the Early Bronze Age. Near the Ishkininsky mine there is a settlement of miners, in the cultural layer of which chromite-containing slags have been identified. Their study showed the similarity of the composition of chromites from slags and oxidized copper ores. According to animal bones, the absolute age of the settlement of Ishkinovka is 1610-1210 years BC (68.2% probability), which is close to the dates obtained for the settlement of Gorny in the Kargalinsky archaeological site.

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microdistrict [Kargaly, 2005]. Consequently, the exploitation of quarries was resumed in the late Bronze Age by the bearers of the Alakul culture.

Several ancient mining tools, mostly stone hammers, were found at the mine. For their manufacture, as a rule, a strong massive rock was chosen - gabbro-diabase. The most spectacular find is a unique hammer used for crushing ores. Its size in diameter is approx. 40 cm. The hammer was discovered by geologist R. A. Segedin in the 1960s during exploration of the Ishkininskoye field and is stored in the scientific collection fund of the West Kazakhstan Interregional Territorial Department of Geology and Nature Management in Aktobe (Tkachev, Segedin, and Greshner, 1996).

The Chanchar mine is located in the northwestern part of the Mugojar Mountains, in the hyperbasites of the Chinar massif. The ancient quarry has a rectangular shape, complicated by numerous modern mine workings. The size of the quarry is 5 ... 7x20 ... 25 m, the current depth is approx. 1 m. Mineralization is confined to modified hyperbasites - zones of contact between serpentinites and talc-carbonate rocks. A well was laid directly in the ancient quarry, which revealed massive sulfide ores with a total capacity of approx. 1 m. The composition of primary ores is chalcopyrite-pyrite-pyrrhotite. Chromite and magnetite deposits were found in rocks and ores.

The ancient quarry is surrounded on three sides (with the exception of the southern side) by a crescent-shaped dump with a flat top. Slope angles are 10-15°, width at the base is 7-10 m, height is 0.7-1.0 m. The dump consists mainly of crushed serpentinite and talc-carbonate rocks. In the preserved ore fragments, malachite forms thin crusts and films on the surface of serpentinites.

The roadside mine is located in the southern part of the Khabarninsky hyperbasic massif (Northwestern Mugodzhary). The ancient mine is located in the zone of contact between serpentinites and pyroxenites, where calcined, carbonated, and quartzized rocks are developed. They contain secretions of malachite, chrysocolla, chalcosine and cuprite. The quarry has a rounded shape, its diameter is 7 - 9 m. The bottom is uneven, complicated by numerous pits. According to geological exploration data, the depth of the ancient quarry was about 5 m. The sickle-shaped dump has a width at the base of 6-8 m, a height of 0.5 m. Its soil consists half of yellowish-gray loam, half of crushed serpentinite and talc-carbonate rocks. The prevailing size of the wreckage is 1-4 cm. On the surface of the rocks there are crusts and primazki copper greens. Less common are brown ironstones, usually without significant copper mineralization.

Ancient pyroxenite mines

Pyroxenite complexes have much in common with hyperbasic ones. Pyroxenites are rocks that mainly consist of pyroxenes and a small admixture of amphiboles (Gornaya Entsiklopediya, 1989). Like hyperbasites, pyroxenites are formed from igneous melts, but contain a slightly higher amount of silicic acid, which makes it possible to classify them as basic rocks. The leading accessory mineral is magnetite, and the chromium content, in contrast to hyperbasites, is an order of magnitude lower. Pyroxenites occur in small volumes in close association with ultramafic rocks and contain small ore bodies.

Ushkattinsky mine is located on the south-eastern tip of the Ural Mountains in the upper reaches of the river of the same name. Pyroxenites are marked in the center and on the eastern flank of the square, where they form low ridges. Some pyroxenite outcrops contain thin crusts and thin veins of malachite and azurite, which were the object of mining in ancient times. The mineralization zone forms several discontinuous bands of shale rocks with a width of 5-15 m over 1 km and is confined to the contact of pyroxenites with basalts.

Four ancient quarries have been discovered here. The largest has a length of 120 m and consists of a chain of small (10 - 20 m in diameter) mine workings. The current depth is 0.5 - 1.0 m. Workings on the eastern and western sides are surrounded by linear dumps, less often crescent-shaped. They were laid out at a distance of 1-2 m from the side of the ancient workings, have a multi-layered structure and lean on each other. The slopes are gentle: the internal slope is 3 - 5°, the external slope is up to 10°. The width of the blade at the base is 5 m, the capacity is 10 - 20 cm. The average copper content in the fragments is approx. 6 %. The surface of pyroxenite rubble is covered with a light gray coating resembling ash. This suggests that a "fire face" may have been used for the extraction of ore material. A stone hammer for crushing ore, made from the same pyroxenite, was found on the dump of one mine.

Ancient mines in basalts

Basalt (siliceous-basalt) complexes were formed during fractured eruptions of underwater volcanoes. They are composed of lavas with layers of jasper and diabase dikes. Ore bodies have a cloak-like or lenticular shape, thickness - the first tens of meters. Zinc impurities are found in the ores

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(0.1-0.5 %), titanium (0.4-1.6 %), manganese (0.1-1.5 %) with a low content of chromium and nickel.

The Ginishke mine is located in the southern part of the Western Mugojars. Here the basalts are broken by sub-meridional diabase dikes up to 1.5 m thick. Rocks often contain inclusions of 1 - 5 mm pyrite and chalcopyrite grains.

In ancient times, a zone of malachite - containing oxidized ores with a width of 30-50 m was developed. It can be traced in the latitudinal direction for a distance of 150-200 m. The average copper content in the ore is approx. 7 %. In the central part of the zone, lenses of brown ironstones are located, composed of dense massive or cellular formations, nodules or individual crusts and goethite flow aggregates. Often on brown ironstone there are malachite secretions.

The ancient quarry has an oval shape, its dimensions are 15x25 m, the modern depth reaches 2.5 m. The sides are relatively steep: the angle of inclination is 15-20°. The quarry is accompanied by two crescent-shaped dumps. Their maximum width at the base is 8-12 m, and their current height is up to 1.5 m. Adjacent to the dumps are two industrial sites where the extracted ore was manually selected, sorted and pre-processed. They are low mounds with a diameter of 15-20 m with a specially leveled surface, composed of finely crushed rubble of empty rocks and crumbs of copper ore.

During the archaeological survey, several tools made of various rocks were found in the dump and at the southern processing site: a hammer made of dark gray fine-and fine - grained quartzite, a hammer made of gabbro, and an anvil made of gabbro-diabase. Sources of these rocks are located in the vicinity of the mine.

The Kurkuduk group of mines is represented by three quarries at a distance of 0.7-1.0 km from each other. The ore field is located within the thickness of basalt lavas with jasper interlayers up to 35 m thick. Mineralization is confined to brown ironstone outcrops. The largest is the Kurkuduk Yuzhny quarry. The mine has a trough-like shape, measuring 15x55 m. The current depth is approx. 1 m. The bottom is flat and flat, complicated by three modern geological exploration ditches. The ancient quarry is surrounded by dumps along the perimeter, with the exception of the north-eastern part. Dumping was carried out in small piles, mainly on the eastern flank. The dumps have a base width of 10-12 m and a height of up to 1.5 m. They are composed of clay-sand material with crushed stone of limonitized basalts and brown ironstones.

At the exit of the quarry there is an ancient industrial site with a diameter of 10-12 m - a relatively flat surface filled with finely crushed brown ironstone, numerous fragments and crushed copper minerals (malachite, azurite). The copper content in the ores of the Kurkuduk mines is 7-8 %.

According to S. G. Gresh-ner (Tkachev, Segedin, and Gresh-ner, 1996), geologists found mining tools in the Kurkuduk ore deposit and in the dumps of an ancient quarry: kaila made of local sealing-wax-red jasper (3 specimens) and porphyry (1 specimen), and a hoe made of gabbro-diabase. In 2007, V. V. Tkachev discovered a hammer and anvil made of gabbro-diabase at the industrial site.

Ancient mines in granitoid contact zones

Ore-bearing granitoid complexes form small massifs among basalts. Mineralization is confined to the contact zones of massifs: in granitoids, it is associated with quartz veins that contain copper sulfides and, in addition, gold, silver, tungsten, molybdenum, and boron; in host basalts, it is associated with oxidized veined - interspersed sulfide mineralization in tourmaline-containing volcanogenic rocks. Manifestations of the latter near contacts with granite intrusions are small in parameters, but very numerous. The shape of ore bodies is isometric or irregular, with a diameter from hundreds of meters to the first kilometers.

The Elenovsky mine is located on the right bank of the Kiimbai River, 3 km east of the village of the same name in the Dombarovsky district of the Orenburg region. The ancient mine was a 30x40 m depression with a depth of 2-3 m (Zaikov et al., 2005). A processing area with a slag field, a burial ground, and a settlement were located near the quarry (Kuzmina, 1962, 1963). 2000-2010 the deposit was fully worked out by the open pit method of ORMET OJSC, and now the ancient mine is completely destroyed. Part of the adjacent territory is alienated for a modern industrial site and filled with waste rock dumps. At the same time, the accompanying archaeological work, unfortunately, was not carried out.

The deposit belongs to the molibdenite-chalcopyrite-tourmaline type and is associated with granitoid magmatism. The main ore body has a steep drop to the east, a vertical length of about 120 m, a strike of 100-130 m, and a thickness of 5 to 45 m. It is characterized by a banded structure, which is expressed in the alternation of sulfidized rocks of quartz-tourmaline, tourmaline and carbonate-chlorite-tourmaline composition. Sulfide mineralization is mainly represented by chalcopyrite and pyrite.

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The oxidation zone is spread to a depth of 15 m. It has developed malachite in the form of thin veins that permeate the rock. The average copper content is 2.25 %. The zone of secondary sulfide enrichment is distributed in the range of 15-19 m. It is characterized by chalcosine, bornite and covellin. The copper content is 6.58-10.35 %.

Numerous traces of metallurgical activity were found near the quarry in the form of accumulations of slags, copper droplets, and crucibles. It is established that the operation of the Yelenovsky mine began 3700-3600 years AGO, reached its peak in the Alakul period and was discontinued in the late Alakul era [Ibid.].

A comparative study of the ore material of the Elenovsky deposit and copper ores found at the Arkaim settlement, which is located 200 km north of the mine, showed that some of the samples were similar in appearance and mineral composition. Tourmaline in both cases has almost identical chemical composition and physical properties (Bushmakin and Zaikov, 1997).

The most convincing evidence of smelting Elenovskaya ore was obtained during the study of the settlement of Kuduksai, located near the mine. Here, a shaft-type furnace was discovered in the form of a well with a diameter of more than 1.5 m and a depth of up to 2 m, the walls of which are covered with stone slabs, and next to it - an accumulation of malachite-rich ore from the oxidation zone of the Elenovsky mine. A chimney with a length of approx. 4,5 m was connected to the fire chamber for gas removal. It consisted of a ground groove with a lining of vertically installed stone slabs and an overlap of horizontal slabs. Next to the end of the chimney was a hearth for crucible melting. An important find is a clay nozzle. According to X-ray fluorescence analysis, slags from the Kuduksai settlement have an increased content of molybdenum (0.01 - 0.03 %) and zinc (0.01 - 0.1 %), which indicates the connection of ores with the granitoid complex characteristic of the Elenovsky mine.

Based on the results of the study of ore samples and historical data, it can be assumed that the Elenovo copper ores were not only processed at the place of their extraction, but were also exported to neighboring territories.

The Chuuldak mine is located at the southern end of the Western Mugojars. The site is composed of basalt lavas in contact with granites. Complex mineralization is associated with a series of sulfide-quartz veins with abundant malachite and azurite deposits. The ores contain chalcopyrite, molybdite, and pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and bornite. In isolated cases, tennantite, gold, tellurides of gold, silver, and lead were found. Nine ancient linear-shaped workings are associated with the ore veins, forming two discontinuous chains along the strike of the veins. The length of the largest quarry reaches 70 m, the current depth is up to 1 m. On the western side, it is surrounded by a crescent-shaped dump 5-7 m wide at the base, 0.3 - 0.4 m high. The dump is composed of crushed stone of altered basalts and veined quartz with copper mineralization in the form of films and thin crusts of malachite.

Two oval-shaped industrial sites with dimensions of 5 x 15 m and a height of 0.1 - 0.3 m were discovered at the field. They are composed of small crushed stones of altered granites (60-70% of the total rock volume), basalts (20-30%), and quartz fragments are much less common. All crushed stone contains malachite primers.

One of the largest collections of stone tools (18 copies) was collected in the mine's workings and dumps, including hammers, hammers and kayla made of gabbro, gabbro-diabase, quartzite and granite. All these rocks belong to the geological complexes that contain and surround the mine.

Estimating the scale of ancient copper mining

Geoarchaeological studies, including ground-penetrating radar surveys, as well as partial opening of the quarries and dumps of the Ishkininsky, Ushkattinsky, Chuuldak and Vorovskaya Yama mines, made it possible to identify the following zones in the structure of copper deposits (from top to bottom)::

1) eluvial-deluvial sediments covering the deposit, with a thickness from the first centimeters to 0.5 m;

2) clastic oxidized ores in the weathering crust (forms a 1 - 3 m thick" hat");

3) oxidized disintegrated ores (ore body eluvium) with a capacity of 2-4 m;

4) oxidized ores in the bedrock (thickness 3 - 5 m);

5) secondary sulfide enrichment with chalcosine ores (developed sporadically, thickness 2-4 m);

6) primary ores with sulfide mineralization. The ancient mines were developed

oxidized ores of zones 2-A and only partially-5 and 6.

According to the degree of preservation, three groups of ancient mines can be distinguished: fully preserved, partially (affected by developments of the XVIII-XIX centuries), and not preserved (disturbed by modern quarries). To assess the scale of production, the first group was selected, which includes 17 objects (Table 2).

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Table 2. Calculation of the amount of extracted ore and metal at the ancient copper mines of the Mugodzhar MMC

N n/a

The mine

Depth of quarries, m

Area, m2

Volume of ore mass, m3

Approximate mass of extracted ore, t

Average copper content,
% (May.)

Amount of copper in the extracted ore, t

Amount of molten metal, t

military career

ore body

1

Dergamyshsky

12

3 300

660

7 920

22 968

6,50

1 493

746

2

Ivanovo Region

5

850

170

850

2 465

6,50

160

80

3

Ishkininsky District*

3 - 7

5 684

1 137

5 684

16 484

5,26

867

434

4

Chanchar

3

110

22

66

191

6,30

12

6

5

Chudskoy*

2,0 - 2,5

72

14

35

101

6,07

6

3

6

Roadside

5

75

15

75

218

7,28

16

8

7

Ushkattinsky*

2

1 115

223

446

1 293

5,74

74

37

8

Aktogay

4,5

425

85

383

1 109

6,61

73

37

9

Aralcha-Springtime

3,5

70

14

49

142

7,30

10

5

10

Zhinishke

5

225

45

225

653

6,98

46

23

11

Kurkuduk*

2 - 3

2 045

409

818

2 372

7,34

174

87

12

Pshensai

2,5

52

10

26

75

6,43

5

2

13

Chiliktinsky

2,5

126

25

63

183

5,92

11

5

14

South Zhamantau*

2,5 - 4,5

728

145

597

1 793

8,23

148

74

15

Barely but the eyelids th

6

1 275

255

1 530

4 437

6,53

290

145

16

Kengiyak*

1,5 - 4,5

448

89

264

766

5,84

45

22

17

Чуулдак*

2

468

156

312

904

6,60

60

31

Total

56 154

3 490

1 745

Notes: 1-5 - mines in hyperbasites, 6, 7-in pyroxenites, 8-14 - in the siliceous-basalt complex of rocks, 15-17 - in the contact zones of granitoids; asterisks indicate mines with two or more open pits.

The following calculation method is used. To determine the morphological parameters of ancient workings, large-scale (1: 100; 1:200) diagrams of the structure of mines were compiled on the basis of instrumental surveys, on which the area of each pit was determined. The level of the ancient workings horizon was determined by the position of the buried soil level. When studying individual mines, it was found that the volume of the developed ore body averaged about 20 % of the total production. The mass of extracted ore was calculated taking into account the specific weight of oxidized ore (2.9 t / m3). The average copper content in the ores for each mine was determined by a series of chemical analyses in combined samples and individual ore counts.

The amount of extracted ore was calculated using the formula:

P = N x G x Y

where N is the area of the ore body, D is the depth of the quarry, and Y is the specific gravity of the ore.

Data for calculations for each mine are given in Table 2. It is estimated that about 55 thousand tons of copper ore were extracted from the preserved ancient mines. The largest mines of the Mugodzhar GMC were the Dergamysh, Ishkininsky, Elenovsky and Kurkuduk group (Table 2).

The extracted material was processed into ore concentrate at special processing sites (industrial sites), while some of the raw materials were rejected and left for tailings. To estimate the amount of molten metal, the metal recovery coefficient during metallurgical processing is taken into account, the minimum value of which is 0.5 (Gornaya Entsiklopediya, 1989). The probable amount of molten metal is calculated by the formula:

M = P x S x K,

where P is the approximate mass of the extracted ore, C is the average copper content in the ores, and K is the metal recovery coefficient.

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Thus, from the 55 thousand tons of ore extracted from the quarries studied, approx. 1,750 tons of copper. The approximate calculation is associated with the inability to obtain accurate data on a number of factors: the initial boundary between quarries and dumps, the initial parameters of the ore body developed in ancient times (and already developed), the average content of useful components, the features of mining technology, processing, metallurgical processing, etc. Variations in these data may introduce certain errors in the proposed calculations, but they will not change the order of the obtained values. Earlier, the productivity of ancient mining operations was determined for the Kartamysh archaeological microdistrict (Donetsk GMC), where the total volume of processed rocks was calculated from the volume of near-barrier dumps. According to calculations, the Chervono Ozero mine produced approx. 2,700 tons of chalcosine-containing copper sandstones with a copper content of 11 %. Approximately 160 tons of metal could have been smelted from them (Brovender, Gaiko, and Shubin, 2010).

Conclusion

The study of ancient workings showed that during the Paleometallic epoch, starting from the Early Bronze Age, at least four types of copper ore deposits were known and successfully developed, differing in their geological position, morphology of ore bodies, amount of ore, mineral and chemical composition of ores.

1. Oxidation zones of interspersed sulfide ores in hyperbasites. Mineralization is represented by veins and films of malachite, less often azurite, which have a reticular distribution. The thickness of the zones is from a few to the first tens of meters. Ores are characterized by high concentrations of chromium, in some cases arsenic. This type includes deposits in complex tectonic zones of the Main Ural Fault (the Ishkininsky, Dergamyshsky, Ivanovsky, Chanchar, Chudskoy, and Pridorozhny mines).

2. Oxidation zones of sulfide ores localized in pyroxenites (Ushkatta mine). Ore bodies have a linear shape and are characterized by a low chromium content.

3. Oxidation zones of copper-pyrite ores confined to basalt complexes. The main component of ore bodies is brown ironstone with nests of copper carbonates, which arose during the formation of the weathering crust. Ore deposits have a cloak-like or lenticular shape, the thickness is the first tens of meters. In their lower part, a chalcosine-containing zone of secondary sulfide enrichment is developed. This type includes the Chiliktinsky, Kyzyl-Kibachi, Baksais, Zhinishke, Kurkuduk, and Pshensai mines.

4. Oxidation zones of sulfide-quartz and sulfide-carbonate-quartz veins associated with granitoid complexes. The shape of ore bodies is isometric or irregular, with a diameter of hundreds of meters - the first kilometers. The ores are characterized by a diverse mineral composition and a wide variety of ore elements. As a rule, in addition to copper, these veins contain gold, silver, tungsten, molybdenum, boron and other metals characteristic of granitoids. One ore deposit of this type at the Elenovskoye field has been developed in recent years by quarrying.

Thus, the sources of copper ores of the Mugodzhar GMC, extracted in the Bronze Age, were numerous copper deposits of various types. Oxidation zones of sulfide ores with a predominance of malachite and azurite, less often chalcosine-containing zones of secondary sulfide enrichment and primary sulfide ores were developed.

Ore was extracted by open-pit mining. The quarries reached the ground water level and, depending on the mining and geological conditions, had a depth of 2 to 10 m. In rare cases (the Ishkininsky mine), additional pits with a depth of up to 20 m were drilled in the bottom of the laid quarries.

Since there are only a few traces of special ore smelting (the Ishkininsky and Elenovsky mines), it can be argued that the production activity in the Mugodzharsky GMC was mainly focused on the extraction and processing of ore (obtaining copper ore concentrate), as evidenced by industrial sites, and the resulting concentrate was exported. The total amount of ore extracted is estimated at 55 thousand tons.

Further research of ancient mines should be carried out in the following main areas::

- additional opening of dumps and drawing up a complete stratigraphic section of technogenic deposits, which will allow tracing the main stages of field development;

- a more detailed study of the mineral and geochemical composition of ancient ores to determine their export destinations in the Southern Urals and adjacent territories;

- search for ancient mines in the copper-ore regions of the Southern Trans-Urals and Mugodzhar; the practice of geological and archaeological research shows that in this region it is still possible to identify previously unknown mines that were exploited in ancient times.

It is also necessary to carry out museumification of the described monuments.

page 95
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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 25.02.13, in the final version-on 03.04.13.

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